Effectiveness of Terrorism Campaigns

Effectiveness of Terrorism Campaigns untold of the theory surrounding terrorism states that it works as a colloquy strategy sign in entirelying the costs of non giving in to the coercers demands (Abrahms 2001). Bonnie Cordes goes against this way of thinking by verbaliseing that although terrorism is oft described as a form of communication, terrorists be rather poor communicators because the violence of terrorism is r bely understood by the public (p.1).During the 70s and 80s the outlet of terrorism was used as a tool of coercion macrocosm the preferred choice in warf ar in the hopes of furthering an Islamic group to world the main ruling power of a country. Many analysts stimulate exposed terrorism as some quantify reaching the outlined goals while many others advocate that terrorism depending on whether it uses guerilla war or strikes on civilians, reaches no positive outcomes for the coercer. Much of the literature has focused on pre-Iraq and pre-Afghan conflicts bo th of which contained a tummy of terrorism. We have now entered the twenty first century and at present the pith Eastern countries argon engulfed in numerous ideological and religious found wars. Different Islamic groups are fighting within their own countries to reach and end that run intos their preferred religious group becoming the ruling governing party. As of this year terrorism against both civilians and military still remains the preferred tool of warfare. As terrorism has failed to wane in the present it is relevant to see whether its use has become any more positively coercive against the betokened country or state.Max Abrahms (2001) is a researcher who has delved in to terrorism data to display whether it is a useful tool in coercing governments to giving into groups demands. He first outlines two types of targeted conflicts those that are insurgent who take aim at military targets which are found to be the more self-made at coercing governments into meeting dem ands. The second type is ones targeting civilians and these are less successful due to the perception that by targeting civilians the groups by means of their aggressive nature will be impossible to bargain and reason with. The goals the groups attempt to achieve are to a fault indicative of future success. Maximalist goals are often not achieved whilst minimalist goals are. The aims of the group also need to be clear. Often outcomes goals are not easily understood as they are tied up in ideological or religious reasons. In this case outcomes are often not reached.Although terrorism was used frequently during the 80s and 90s terrorism specialists stated that the use of terrorism rarely achieved the outcome goals demanded of governments (Cordes et al., 1984 in Abrahms 2012). Abrahms (2012) finds that terrorist campaigns are an inherently unprofitable coercive tactic because governments resist complying when their civilians are the focus of substate attack.When Abrahms assessed the g oals of terrorists he found two types process goals and outcome goals. Process goals are a ploy to gain extra individuals to the group, to gain media attention, and financial behave from likeminded people with attempts at hampering peace-processes and boosting morale. As we will see in examples from Iraq, their civil war is based on both types of goals. Their outcome goals are stated semipolitical goals which aim to overthrow the current Shia government and instil a caliphate leader of Sunni background. The difference between the two is the latter requires the abidance of the target government which at present is not happening under current Prime Minister Nouri al Maliki.In order to statistically test the effectiveness of terrorist campaigns Abrahms used a sample of 42 cases of terror attacks. He found that attacks carried out on civilians as done by Hamas versus ones carried out against a military such as the Tamil Tigers lead to differences in favour of the Tamil Tigers. The d ifference being governments tended to comply more often when attacks were not aimed at innocent people. Unlike second campaigns terrorist campaigns are seen as a losing political tactic (Abrahms 2012).He further expanded his study to include 125 campaigns carried out by 54 groups. approximately half of the campaigns were guerrilla using their attacks on military personnel office. He first looked at the Foreign Terrorist Organisations ( terrorist organization) capabilities and found certain criteria were relevant for future success. These included the boot membership size, the FTO life span older groups had more highly developed organisational skills, whether or not the group received external support and at long last whether the group employed suicide missions as these enhanced the lethality of attacks, required additional manpower which enhances coercive effectiveness (Pare 2003, 2005). The target countrys capability was also a future predictor of a campaigns success, as a co untry with great capability was less susceptible to coercion (Drezner 1998, Hart 2000 in Abrahms 2012).Much of the terrorist activity used at present is within the Middle East and is being used in a civil war. In these cases the size of the accusive is the key variable affecting the political outcomes of these substate campaigns (Abrahms 2006b, Pape 2003, 2005).In order for a government to make concessions to terror groups it is important they know what the objectives are. In the current literature there appears to be a general consensus on how governments rank political objectives. Campaigns found to have maximalist objectives seek to induce target governments into relinquishing their power or changing their ideology. Campaigns with limited objectives tend to not directly affect the government or its citizens fundamental way of life (Abrahms 2006b, George 1971). at that place is some research that finds FTOs to be successful on certain occasions. Of the 125 campaigns Abrahms looke d at, 38 successfully coerced the target country into at least partially complying with the policy demands. There is a clear difference however based on whether guerrilla tactics were used over terrorist attacks. The fleck is practically half of those that used guerrilla versus terrorism. The guerrilla campaigns which targeted the military accounted for 36 successful cases of coercion. The only case where terrorism partially succeeded on its policy demand was the highly publicised Spanish end to withdraw from Iraq in response to the March 11 2004 Madrid train station bombings. Here the Moroc target Islamist group attacked Spanish commuters days before the thrill ministerial election, helping to elect anti-war candidate who then fulfilled his pledge to bring Spanish troops home. However researchers tend to agree on the end point that the 11-M campaign was an outlier. Regardless of terrorist capability, guerrilla groups appear to be the only group that achieve their political dema nds. Terrorist campaigns would therefore seem to be an ineffective coercive tool.Comparativists are finding that rebel campaigns against civilians in protracted civil wars reduce the likelihood of gaining compliance of either the government (Fortna 2008) or the local population (Kalyvas 2006) again which can be observed from an Iraq perspective. The PM Maliki has consistently resisted the demands of the terrorist groups while also condemning all attacks.Equally, studies assessing the media coverage of terrorism, consistently finds that it seldom amplifies the political demands of its perpetrators. Equally the coverage is visualised as acts of senseless bestiality (Hewitt 1993 p.52). Less than 10% of coverage sided with the grievances of the terrorists (Kelly Mitchell 1984p. 287). Lastly, the number of people killed is always higher for civilians than against assaults on a military in guerrilla campaigns.Putting terrorism into context and taking the year 2012 as an example, there w ere a total of 6771 attacks worldwide resulting in over 11,000 deaths and more than 21,000 injuries (state.gov). Of these attacks civilians were the biggest victims accounting for 2073 lives. constabulary fatalities accounted for 1700 while government staff accounted for 971. Military personnel only accounted for 379 (sate.gov) despite the research carried out by Abrahms suggesting that for terrorist groups to achieve any success being fixed by attacks carried out on military staff.In January alone Iraqi terrorist groups were responsible for the brutal deaths of over 1300 people (state.gov). Globally, Iraq ranks second in the total number of attacks combined in the year 2012 however they are number one for the amount of people killed (2436), the greatest number seen since 2006-2008 civil war. As previously mentioned, the Middle East is geographically the aroundly heavily concentrated area of terrorist attacks even though the attacks occur in 85 countries. The highest proportion o f attacks occurred in Pakistan, Iraq and Afghanistan with over half the occurrences happening in these countries. Of the targets aimed at 2073 out of 7467 are civilians whilst police account for 1699, government 971 and military comes at 379 aft(prenominal) business at 480. In Iraq well(p) over 27 share of attacks were targeted at civilians whilst 24 percent against police. Journalists were targeted most frequently in Somalia (26%), Pakistan (18%) and Syria (13%).Taking Iraq as an example and using Max Abrahms criteria for successful campaigns the following will outline whether after all these geezerhood terrorism really is the only viable way of coercing governments to a groups demands. State.gov reports that like Pakistan over 81% of attacks in Iraq are attributed to unknown perpetrators. The remaining attacks were identifies as those belonging to Al Qaeda in Iraq (AQI) or The Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL). Terrorism in Iraq was identified as some of the most let hal with three out of 10 being the most lethal of 2012. Although a single attack on any given day would be severe in Iraq there was often a concentrated and coordinated attacks that happened across the same day at multiple different locations. One particular day there were 30 attacks across the country. The tactics and targets were highly concentrated with more than 6 percent of all attacks targeted at either innocent civilians and property or police. An additional 10 percent were targeted at government officials. Over 80 percent of the attacks were bombings.Worldwide the perpetrators that accounted for the most fatalities were the Taliban (1842) with Al Qaeda in Iraq and the ISIL coming in third (892). Of the tactics used bombing was the most preferred choice accounting for 65 percent used worldwide.At present the U.S. Department of State Bureau of Diplomatic Security (OSAC) reports that the main target of terror in Iraq are government personnel and assets. Due to the groups protra cted attempts at overthrowing the democratically elected Iraqi government and replacing it with a Sunni led Islamic caliphate such as in Iran. In 2013 9571 Iraqi civilians were killed and 2006 since the beginning of this year according to Iraq Body Count (Counterpunch). At present ISIS is taking over Sunni populated areas such as Fallujah and Mosul, this however is not getting the media attention that is required due to the threats and attacks on journalists, of which five have been killed since October last whilst over 40 have fled to Kurdistan and Turkey (Counterpunch). There has been a study increase in the occupation of Sunni led groups such as ISIS taking control over Sunni Iraq however the government seems to be struggling to regain control. Shia civilians carry on to be killed en masses however the biggest problem is finding the whereabouts of the groups.Civilian deaths appear to have outnumbered military fatalities despite the fact that research has shown this type pf warf are to be ineffective in achieving any coercive outcomes. Despite thousands of Shias being mortally wounded Iraqs Prime Minister Nouri al-Maliki has numerous times stated that he will not enter negotiations with terrorists saying that crushing terrorists is one of the priorities of the current Iraqi government. He further explained why negotiating with these groups (ISIL/Al Qaeda) would be futile saying these groups are not and will not be a negotiating side. He went on to stress that whichever side that is not opposed to terrorist groups, is not worthy of partnership in running the countrys affairs. (REF)At present the Iraqi army has been working closely with both ethnic and local police in the al-Anbar province in an attempt to defeat the terrorists and al-Qaeda. The fighting is due to divisions between the Sunni and Shia population remaining after the civil war. Prior to which the Sunni minority were leading the country through Saddam Hussein. Add to this also the Kurdish minori ty who also want a say in how the country is governed. Sunnis accuse the current government of exclusion despite their presence in parliament. The government ignored a protest in December 2013 stating that it was a ploy for the sectarian and territorial division of the country (REF).In November 2010 a power sharing agreement was made between all three parties however the Sunnis felt the government was marginalising them by having more Shia representatives. The cultural divisions appear too difficult for the government to handle which has led to the current originate in the country and their inability to handle the security crisis.Although the massacring of civilians has proven ineffective in the past, 8,000 people died in 2013 of which most of them were civilians. Abrahms outlined the possible coercive abilities of groups being dependent on the outcome or process goals. For ISIL and al-Qaeda, process goals have managed to garner some support from the mainly Sunni peoples and they h ave been receiving funding from external sources such as Iran who are happy to help out the opposition in order to create instability within the Sunnis. Recruits were increased during the past number of years and the group is claimed to have 2500 members. Although the groups hope for media attention, as Abrahms has pointed out this is seldom in favour of the groups plight and this has been the case in Iraq. Journalists are white-lipped to print negative stories in fear of their lives with many as shown fleeing to neighbouring countries.Equally, when looking at the outcome goals which is looking at what the group wishes to achieve politically they are aiming for maximalist goals that are not so much based on territory alone but rather a forceful attempt at overthrowing a government in the hopes of dividing the country into sectarian divisions based on ideological and religious goals of transforming he country into a Shia state following Sharia Law. These goals have proved to be impo ssible to achieve whether peaceful or violent means are attempted due in part to the lack of compliance of the current government.Iraqs capabilities also are strong with the US having trained them and provided them with numerous arms and ammunition and vehicles (REF). The higher the capability the less susceptible the target country is. The size of the objective is a key variable in the future success of the group. As can be seen in the Iraq example the objectives are vast which makes the likelihood of any concessions highly unlikely.

Importance of Using the ACARS System

Importance of Using the ACARS systemAbbreviationsACARS g emitcraft Communication Addressing and Reporting SystemADS-B Automatic hooklike surveillance broadcastCMU Communication Management wholeCDU Control Display UnitFMS Flight Management SystemATC Air Traffic ControlAOC aeronautic Operational ControlAAC Airline Administrative ControlNOTAM Notice to AirmenVHF Very High FrequencyVDL VHF Data LinkMAC capacity Authentication CodeAES Advance Encryption StandardSHA Secure Hash AlgorithmCA Certificate AuthorityICAO International Civil Aviation makeupIPsec Internet Protocol SecurityIn this report the importance of exploitation the ACARS transcription in the parley betwixt the aircrafts and the ground social units such as Air traffic control (ATC), aeronautical operational control (AOC) and airline administrative Control (AAC). (2) Also, the need of securing the colloquy ship against peaceable and active round offers forget be identified and analysed.The ACARS transcription is utilize to transmit information both from aircraft to ground and from ground to aircraft. The info transmitted from the aircraft to the ATC will communicate requests and receipts for clearances and instructions when the aircraft is on the ground, during the bods of take-off and landing and finally during the time the aircraft is in the air.The ACARS is clay is as well as use for communicating in the midst of the aircrafts and the AOC and AAC ground units. The data transmitted between these three entities is to the highest degree various aspects of the aircraft, weather information and observations, NOTAMS, passage plan and both diversion from the flight plan, technical performance, realizable system failures and any special information regarding the flight and its riders. ACARS system to transmit data to the ground receivers, the FMC ironware is used on newer aircrafts or the CDU on older aces.The conference is accomplished by using the FMS unit and a small printer in the aircrafts and similar hardware on the ground. The FMS transmits the data to either a satellite or a ground antennas, regarding the altitude of the aircraft. After either the satellite or the antenna will transmit the data through the communication ne dickensrk to the appropriate ground unit using a private network.Due to the reason that these data are crucial and must not be altered or even sometimes monitored by unauthorised users the hostage of the communication line of work and the data should be the top priority of the airlines. To achieve that the data transmitted should always maintain the three study aspects of information protective cover which areConfidentialityIntegrityAvailabilityDuring the early years of the aviation industry communication impart were only needed between the ATC and the pilots. on that point were no ways to transmit data regarding the aircrafts avionic systems, engines and integrity, mainly refer commensurate-bodied to the reason that the re was not such advanced technology, on both the communication channels and on the aircrafts. The only communication channel avail adequate to(p) was the VHF channels that in our days is the least trusted protocol.As the aircrafts developed, the boundaries were extended, and light-emitting diode to a rapid increase in air traffic. In baffle to co-op with this, the aircrafts manufacturers decided to improve the quality and quantity of the systems aboard the aircrafts in launch to shelter them from mid-air collisions and also help the ATCs to manage the traffic easier. From the moment that the aviation instruments on board the aircraft changed from linearue to digital, a breakthrough was achieved, carry oning many companies to develop software program and hardware that allowed the improvement of the communication and data transmission between the aircrafts and the ground. Along with these improvements, the aircrafts critical systems were able to continuously provide the data rec order information regarding their condition. During this phase the CPDLC was developed in order to minimize the acoustic mis downstairsstandings (6) provided accountability and made the communication easier, more efficient and safer to transmit and receive long messages (6). Although in my whimsy this system would make the communication between the pilots and the ATC easier and safer, it wasnt widely used because of credential nemesiss like message manipulation or injection (6) that were not possible to be detected. Also, a major backdoor to the system in my opinion was that there was no authentication behaveing to listen inping or spoof clearances (6).For the improvement of safety and to be able to improve the accident investigations, the authorities decided that it would be helpful, that these data should be transmitted to the ground and in order to improve the communication theory between the aircrafts and the ATCs, a new system was developed, which is called ACARS. Along wi th it new techniques of communication and data transmission were introduced that allowed the aircraft, ATCs and airlines home to communicate with each separate by sending short texts.ACARS was introduced during the 80s and as the years passed it became precise popular among the airlines. It allowed direct communication between aircrafts and ATCs for requesting and receiving instructions and clearances. The ability of communicating between the aircraft and the AOC and AAC was introduced, that allowed the modify of information close to the weather, possible issues with the aircrafts systems, NOTAMs, passenger information, etc.In the early years of aviation, the computers were not very capable in intercepting or manipulating a message that was transmitted and therefore there was lilliputian need for that system to be in effect(p). As the years pass and computers became stronger, in concert with the beledge of people, possible unauthorised monitoring of message transmission or e ven manipulating the messages transmitted between the aircrafts and the ground was a threat to aviation. In order to do work this issues, bail mechanisms were placed in order to protect the communication channels and the data transmitted.The security mechanisms placed, are updated regularly in order to maintain the information see to it against new threats and assailants. The difficulty of maintaining a secure communication channel is becoming greater, due to the reason that the cost of hardware that allow you to monitor the information transmitted by aircrafts are very cheap and easily accessible. This together with the change magnitude knowledge of people on how to use them the wrong way and with the intention to cause harm for various reasons, makes the work of the ones trying to protect these systems, very difficult and crucial for the safety of the passengers and aircraft crew lives.As the workload for the pilots in command increased greatly due to the increased traffic, r eduction of the crew members in aircrafts and the need to maximize profit without undermining safety and in order to protect the pilots from making mistakes or forget to complete the necessary steps for the safe study of a flight, researchers were working on a new way of communication between the aircraft and the ground operations. That software was ACARS and was developed in the 1980s.ACARS is a digital datalink system (3) that allows the pilots, ATC and the airlines headquarters to exchange short messages no matter of the location of the aircraft around the world. In order to achieve that the aircraft is equipped with an avionics computer which is called Communications Management Unit (CMU), a control display unit (CDU) and a printer. The CMU was designed to be able to send and receive digital messages (3) regarding aspects of the flight, instructions and clearances from the ATC, weather forecasts, NOTAMs and information to and from the companys headquarters regarding the aircraf ts performance and special needs about the passengers.In order to achieve the level of communication needed, the ACARS system is using different types of communication media. The two media used to communicate between the aircraft and the ground by using satellites when the aircrafts are at higher altitudes and radio antennas at lower altitudes. Before the origin implementations of the ACARS system, the communication between the aircrafts and the ground was performed by VHF voice channels. As the technology advanced, new way of communication were developed. During the graduation exercise periods of implementation of the ACARS system the ARINC organisation, developed a value that a allowed for the VHF communication service to be upgraded by a new service that allowed the use of digital telex formats (3) to the VHF communication channel. During the 90s this led to the standardization of a VHF Digital Link. As the implementation of the ACARS software by airliners became widespread, n ew services were developed in order to make the communication channels more efficient. SITA company, during this phase had developed a large ground communication network that was connecting places around the world. In order to further enhance the abilities of ACARS, SITA coordinated their ground communication network to be able and cooperate with ACARS already existing communication channels between aircraft and ground. In my opinion the ACARS system was designed very cleverly because it was able to cooperate with many types of aircraft communications equipment such as VHF, Inmarsat, sitcom, iridium satellite, VDL and high frequency data link (6).More detailed, SITA managed to connect both VHF and VDL air to ground communication channel together with the ground network it had already developed and to provide an end to end communication channel between aircrafts and ground operations no matter the type of flights. Both short haul and long haul routes were supported.Figure .1 ACARS Setup (9)ACARS security is very important for the safe conduct of flights. Two different types of security were implemented. The first one was called DSP-based architecture and is only capable to protect ACARS messages during transmission from the aircraft to the ground, divergence the ground network unprotected and risking attacks from hackers devote.For that reason, there is an end to end security architecture was proposed and developed. In order for the security of the ACARS system to be complete it will own to maintain confidentiality, integrity and availability to the information transmitted at all times, both in the communication channel between the aircraft and the ground and also in the ground network.On the end to end solution proposed in the article The Approach of ACARS Data Encryption and Authentication (5), The proposed security will be using symmetric and asymmetric cryptography, a hybrid system that could solve the problems of using just one of the methods of crypt ography, along with digital signatures to provide adequate privateness and integrity (5) to the messages. The issues that came up with the symmetric cryptography were that in order to communicate with each other, a depict had to be interchange between the sender and the recipients of the message. This remarkable line was designed to be known just by the sender and the recipient of the message in order to protect it from unauthorized users. This proved to be very difficult to maintain secure due to the large number of users that are using ACARS to communicate. On the other hand, asymmetric cryptography was able to solve this problem but it required the use of a large size find outs that led to a rather large amount of bandwidth required just for the exchange of the keys that kept secure the communication, which was a problem due to the limited amount of bandwidth the ACARS system was designed to require.This hybrid system that was proposed, made use of a key derivation algorithm called Elliptic Curve Diffie-Hellman which is using an egg-shaped curve and certain points in order to find the private key. By using the elliptic curve along with the private key, it was able to generate the open key of both the aircraft and the ground station (sender and recipient). By using this technique, the communication channel was secure because it was very difficult for the attacker to find the private key even though the exchange of existence key is intercepted (5). For the receiver to be able to rewrite and use the private key a key derivation function is needed which in this case is the MAC.In order to provide encryption to the data transmitted the AES algorithm is used in combination with the SHA 256 algorithm. The number 256 after the SHA acronym means the length of the random binary sequence that is used as the key for the AES (5) algorithm.Due to the reason of the limited bandwidth that ACARS is designed to be using, the message data transmitted and the necessar y data transmitted to provide security should be compact as much as possible. In order to do so every letter, number or symbol will have to be encoded to a 6bit stream during the encryption phase. In order for the recipient to be able to decode it and read the correct message, the MAC of the encrypted data will have to be read and be decrypted to an ACARS readable character. Also, the correct MAC value will have to be calculated in order for the message to be authenticated.During the testing phase of the to a higher place end to end security mechanism, eavesdropping was possible to be done but no actual data were able to be read, due to the AES that was used in the encryption of the message, so confidentiality was achieved. Privacy was also achieved because if the message was manipulated, the MAC value would have been changed and the recipient would have detected the change in value. Finally for the digital signature to be correct, the assumptions that the CA was trustworthy had to be made.Wireless Communication SecurityDue to the reason that the main communication channel between the aircraft and the ground stations will always be piano tuner, some necessary aspects of security will always have to exist in order to able to say that the channel is secure.According to the authors of the article (7), in order for a security protocol be acceptable, it must meet some requirements. The first one is the mutual entity authentication which is able to provide security by nominateing the sender and the receiver. Also, the Asymmetric algorithms are very critical according to my opinion, regarding the key dissemination that will allow the sender and the receiver authenticate each other messages. Next in order to prevent unauthorised people to access the communication channel, the two parties must agree to the keys used and to be able to confirm them when needed along with universe able to control them, maintain the key knickknack (7) so no replay attacks could be performed and also to protect secrets of old communications in the case that an unauthorised person gains access to a seance key. All the above aspects, in my opinion are critical in order to maintain privacy in the communication channel.According to the article (7) which I agree with, some compromises should be taken in order to have the security options tailored to the needs of your systems. In our case the ACARS system was designed to have a small amount of load in transmitting data and therefore and IPsec with fixed pre-shared keys (7) would be very helpful because it has limited data exchanged in order to provide security. On the other hand, protocols based on asymmetric cryptosystems (7) are able to provide better security but in a higher data load cost.Wireless Communication Threat ModelIn order to be able to provide better solutions in the wireless communication channel, we must be able to identify the threat that are possible to be faced during the transfer of data. In ord er to do so we must have a threat model that is tailored to our needs.In order to create a threat model, we must also know the adversaries capabilities. In the case of wireless networks according to the article (8) authors, which are the one that ACARS uses, the adversary usually has the ability to receive and transmit data (8), should be able to monitor the network and in order to do the previous two, he must have knowledge on how the network was setup. Commonly, if the attacker is able to eavesdrop a wireless, he will be able to inject traffic (8) into the network. All of the above capabilities in my opinion are depended to the knowledge he has and to the gold he is willing to spend in order to be able to perform such tasks.The main attacks he do-nothing perform to a wireless network has to do with spoofing attacks (8), replay attacks (8) which I believe is easily solved by the freshness aspect of security, eavesdropping (8) compromise or introduction of nodes, wireless jam (8) and finally a denial of service (8) attack by increasing extremely the load of the network.ACARS Security per HoneywellPer Honeywell, ACARS is using a message security system that is able to provide message authentication, confidentiality and data integrity, which are the basic aspects that need to be protected. Based on an ICAO document regarding the security plan a public key infrastructure and other cryptographic algorithms are used in order to protect the data transmitted.More specifically, according to the ARINC specification 823 (4) the security of the messages is carve up in two different parts. The first part was published on 2007 and contains everything regarding the framework of the security, such as algorithms, protocols and message formats. The spot parts are about the key management of this security mechanism and was published 1 year later and contains information regarding the key life cycle and the how a certificate is managed.Furthermore, two different security pro visions were developed and each of them had different characteristics regarding the mechanisms used in order to protect the data transmitted.The first one is called ATN/OSI Security and it was set forth in the ICAO document 9880. This kind of security foresight used digital signatures which uses the Elliptic Curve Diffie-Hellman cryptographic algorithm combined with a SHA256 in order to generate and verify the signatures. As for Message authentication, it uses hashed MAC with a 32bit MAC length. A key agreement is used in order to share the public key that will then be used in order for the recipient to be able to derive the secret key and be able to decode the message sent.The second one is called ACARS Security ARINC 823. This one also uses the digital signatures in order to sign the message and the specifications of the digitals signatures are similar to the first security foresight, making use of the elliptic curve Diffie-Hellman algorithm combined with a SHA256 for the signatu re generation and verification. Again, for the message authentication a hashed MAC is being used but in this case the length of the MAC is not standard. It could be 32 bit, 64 bit or even 128 bit, with the default one to be the 32 bit. The main difference between the two security foresights is that the previous didnt require a confidentiality mechanism to be in place. On the other hand, this one uses for encryption and AES128 cipher algorithm that is mainly used to encrypt and decrypt the messages. Finally, the key establishment mechanism is similar on both security foresights, meaning that both of them use an elliptic curve Diffie-Hellman with SHA256 algorithm to provide the communication channel with a secret key agreement, shared public key and the derivation of the secret key.ThreatsAs the technology is improved, the computers become more powerful, leading in the implementation of better security mechanisms but also in increasing amount of computing power that possible attackers have in their hands. This along with the ability given to the public to be able to track the flights using the ADS-B give the axe have possible backdoors that can threaten the safety of the flights. The main use of this surveillance technology is for the improvement of the safety and efficiency of the flights. This technology also lead to the creation of a web application and smartphone application, that gave the ability to anyone to be able to track any aircraft in the world that had this technology active. Anyone with a cheap hardware setup could receive the information sent to the ground by the aircrafts.If an attacker is able to intercept these signals, he is able to perform passive attacks like eavesdropping the communications or furthermore, block the response from the ATC (jamming) and finally send his response back (message injection), could result in the attacker to be able to perform an active attack and penetrate the aircrafts navigation system. Another possible attack according the article (6) this attacks could result in the virtually modifying the trajectory of an aircraft (6). After the attacker, has gained access to the aircraft systems, he can receive information via the ACARS system. If the ACARS system is not protected correctly, the attacker will be able to exploit the systems and either insert false information to the avionics or just attach a virus or malware and have a constant access to the aircrafts avionics and information.Furthermore, the attacker could gain access to the FMS he will be able to mess with the navigation and flight planning such as waypoints, altitudes, speeds, alternate the destination airport of the flight etc. This will result to the attacker being in complete control of the aircraft, with the pilots not being able to do much in order to gain back the control of the aircraft.Although the ACARS system was updated regularly and the ACARS AMS was developed in order to provide end to end security, many airlines decide d to not use it and instead provide some security by obscurity (6), which according to my opinion could lead in more risks and better security because no one has tested the security algorithms that are used and therefore if there is any vulnerability in the security algorithm, the company will never be aware of it, leaving the communication channel open to zero day attacks.The cost of the hardware needed to complete such an attack is not high. Using online shopping web applications or other sellers, the possible attacker will be able to buy the necessary hardware such as FMS hardware, air to ground transmitters, ACARS manager hardware and other hardware, in order to perform such an attack. By using one of the most known flight simulator software, combined with the necessary hardware and finally by exploiting any vulnerabilities in the security of ACARS and FMS systems, they can manage to gain control of the aircraft with low cost.There are many ways the attacker could gain access or perform attacks against the aircrafts. These ways may include attacks via the internet by exploiting bugs in web applications, vulnerabilities against software, SQL injections to databases or other vulnerabilities that are not fixed in officious applications.There are two different threat models according to the authors of the article On perception and reality in the wireless air traffic communication security (6). The two different threat models are the traditional aviation threat model (6) and the Modern threat model (6). The main difference between these two according the article are that the software-defined radios are widely available to the public and along with them to possible attackers and the change between analogue instruments and digital instruments, with the second ones to give the ability to the users to transmit more data in electronic form. These could lead to an increase in the abilities hackers to eavesdrop, modify and inject data on the communications channel.Th e traditional threat model is used from when the first forms of communication were implemented in aviation. As years passed the communication channels were improved and the amount of data that was transmitted increased rapidly. The authors of the article characterize the article as nave (6) of the reasons of inferior technological capabilities and financial capabilities, requirement of inside knowledge and the use of analog communication. (6). I can agree with their opinion because I believe that indeed the threat model is very old and due to the new technologies, along with the low cost of a setup that could allow to interfere with the communications of an aircraft, the risk will be much higher.The second threat model is the modern threat model. It has major changes from the first one due to the increased digitalisation and automation (6) of the aircrafts communication channels. Also, the increased technological capabilities (6) such as cheap hardware could lead to possible attacks that could not be performed when the first threat model was developed. Finally, people could easily gain aviation knowledge (6) from the internet, flight simulator software, which could increase the seriousness of the attacks that could be performed. For the above reasons and from my own experience with aviation knowledge and flight simulator software, I would agree that this model is more up to date and more tailored to identify the threats that todays aircraft face.Concluding on the above-mentioned information, the aviation world and more specifically the security of the aircrafts, crews and passengers are far from safe. This is because even with the security measures that are already researched, the airlines do not always implement them. Also, the technology required and the cost of acquiring such technology makes it easier for attackers to perform either passive or active attacks against aircrafts. The above when combined with the knowledge of an attacker can lead to great thre ats against the aircrafts.In order to maintain the aviation world safe, the need to reassess the risk of attacks under realistic system models and the development of appropriate countermeasures (6) should be identified and embraced along with new end to end security implementations are proposed and if approved implemented by airlines. Such security mechanisms must be tested in order to be totally sure that all vulnerabilities are patched and that it will never have a backdoor that could allow an attacker to perform an attack.In my opinion in order to be able to be sure that a security mechanisms that will be placed is totally secure, we must first learn our adversaries, understand their capabilities, intentions, motive and upon all knowledge and financial state. Next, we must understand what passive and active attacks an adversary can perform. If we manage to understand the above aspects of our adversaries, then we must understand what has to be done in order to prevent them from e stablish an attack against the aircraft- ground communications channel and ground network.By having the necessary information about the adversaries and the protection mechanisms that we can implement, then we must evaluate those already implemented and find ways to enhance them.ReferencesSmith, M., M. Strohmeier, V. Lenders, and I. Martinovic. On the security and privacy of ACARS. (016 Integrated Communications Navigation and Surveillance (ICNS)) 1-27. Web. 15 Feb. 2017.Aircraft Communications, Addressing and Reporting System. Aircraft Communications, Addressing and Reporting System SKYbrary Aviation Safety. N.p., n.d. Web. 14 Feb. 2017.Aircraft Communications Addressing and Reporting System (ACARS). Aircraft Communications Addressing and Reporting System (ACARS). N.p., n.d. Web. 14 Feb. 2017.Olive, Michael . ACARS Message Security (AMS) as a Vehicle for confirmation of ICAO Doc. 9880 Part IV-B Security Requirements. Proc. of ICAO ACP WG-M Meeting, Belgium, Brussels. N.p. n.p., n. d. 1-12. Print.Yue, M., and X. Wu. The Approach of ACARS Data Encryption and Authentication. 2010 International Conference on Computational Intelligence and Security (2010) 556-60. Web. 10 Feb. 2017.Strohmeier, Martin, Matthias Schafer, Rui Pinheiro, Vincent Lenders, and Ivan Martinovic. On Perception and existence in Wireless Air Traffic Communication Security. IEEE Transactions on Intelligent Transportation Systems (2016) 1-20. Web.Akram, Raja Naeem, Konstantinos Markantonakis, Keith Mayes, Pierre-Francois Bonnefoi, Damien Sauveron, and Serge Chaumette. Security and performance comparison of different secure channel protocols for Avionics Wireless entanglements. 2016 IEEE/AIAA 35th Digital Avionics Systems Conference (DASC) (2016) n. pag. Web.Akram, Raja Naeem, Konstantinos Markantonakis, Royal Holloway, Sharadha Kariyawasam, Shahid Ayub, Amar Seeam, and Robert Atkinson. Challenges of security and trust in Avionics Wireless Networks. 2015 IEEE/AIAA 34th Digital Avionics Systems Conference (DASC) (2015) n. pag. Web.Network Graphic. Digital image. ATC Data Link News. N.p., n.d. Web. 17 Feb. 2017.

Themes of Life and Death in Anna Karenina Essay -- Tolstoy Anna Kareni

Themes of Life and Death in Anna Karenina The novel, Anna Karenina, parallels its heroines, Anna Karenina, moral and social conflicts with Constantin Levins internal struggle to take place the meaning of life. There are many other underlying themes which links the novel as a whole, yet many critics at the time only(prenominal) looked upon its critical view of Russian life. Henry James called Tolstoys novels as loose and baggy monsters of stylessness, but Tolstoy stated of Anna Karenina .....I am very proud of its architecture--its vaults are united so that one cannot even notice where the keystone is. That is absolutely correct, because within Anna Karenina, there exists many themes that are all linked together to create much(prenominal) a wonderful piece of work. Critics tend to miss the role that the theme of life and death plays in Tolstoys Anna Karenina. Despite its apparent meanings, these two themes are intertwined in the novel and provides a backbone for some of the other existing themes. With a masterful touch, Tolstoy is able to use these two themes to show the characters in their true forms at both stages. The characters are shown to be living in a state of delusion, and as the characters find themselves at times of near death situations or on their deathbed, they are able to reveal themselves truthfully. Many of the characters in the novel are able to show their real self and at times of death, there is a point of reversal in the characters. This is most evident in the scene of Annas near death experience during her illness. This event brings about a change in Karenin and even Vronsky as they trade positions. Karenin suddenly becomes human and not hidden from life by his administrative regulations. His carapace cracks, and ... ...l part of everybodys life and no social occasion who it is, everybody fears death. To come to terms with death is something that takes a lot of courage and a full understanding of oneself. Tolstoy in his novel, has r evealed to us the effect that death can live with on a person and advocates us to not succumb to the daily life of the world which we live in, because it is all a delusion. Yet if we live as naturally as possible, we can get a better grasp on the true essence of life as Levin does in the novel. He finds comfort out of working and enjoying the fruits of his labor, instead of indulging himself in the materialism of the hypocritical aristocrats. Modern culture has lost this aspect of life and we need to check ourselves in front we lead our lives into a downfall. Works CitedTolstoy, Leo. Anna Karenina, trans. Constance Garnett (New York The Modern Library, 1993).

The Wars by Timothy Findley Essay -- Justifying Wars Timothy Findley E

The Wars by timothy Findley Justification. Defined as the act of justifying something. To serve as an acceptable solid ground or excuse for our actions, based on actual or believed information. Throughout the history of not only the modern world, but certainly back to the barest essentials of conclude our species have made decisions that have effectively shaped our world into what it is today. Or have not. The judgments made in the past may also have been relatively insignificant to a larger picture, but would still be important in one persons or a group of peoples periodical life. Either way, choices made in any way, shape, or form, are based on what the decision maker believes to be true or morally right. Timothy Findley displays the abovementioned opinion-based judgments in the novel The Wars. From the background behind the novel, to the ending scene of the main character being burned to the ground in a flaming barn, galore(postnominal) choices are made. Whether large and imp ortant or small and insignificant, Mr. Findley asks us as readers and as humans to look into ourselves to uncover the reasoning behind the choices, as rise up as our own actions and the actions of our leadership. The justification for most of the aforementioned incidents in The Wars can be classified under 3 broad-based ideas safety, self-interest or the moral/ prevalent good.The first of these main ideas brought up in the novel is safety. The time setting of the story starts in 1915, almost a year after the First existence War has begun. At the beginning of this war, the first major decision based on the idea of public safety was made going to war in the first place. Assassination at Sarajevo sparks what would be a catastrophic loss for nations all across the world. This decision that directly affects the main character, Robert Ross, is Britain declaring war on expansive 5, 1914. This automatically makes Roberts home country, Canada, at war as well, as they were part of the Br itish Empire. In the past century, public safety has been the main justification for most types of war. But is going to war really safe? The conceived viewpoint of the author, often referring to the battlefield as lifeless and, in essence, counterproductive, says no. 9,000,000 casualties in iv years across the world says no. Many attempts at peace by the UN and peacekeeping countries such as Canada say no. Yet, world leaders still pos... ...n for his condition after the fire, Robert would have been in prison for his actions. Instead, his almost lifeless body was guarded all day, even though it was stated by doctors that he would never be able to function or be capable or reason again. Or treason again. Second Lieutenant Robert Ross was a tyrant or pioneer. Bastard or hero. This is for us to decide for ourselves.Throughout The Wars, the main character is involved in many decisions, most of which conform to under three main ideas or categories of justification moral/general good, s elf-interest, and safety. Timothy Findley indirectly asks the readers of his novel to take these ideas into our own lives, and apply them to the decisions we make as a person or as a society. These decisions may be as simple as what type of bread we buy in the dawn to more significant, such as who we vote for on Election Day. For any action we take there is always some type of justification or reason for doing what we are doing. It occurs today as it has occurred in centuries before. And surely, as we look into the future, the decisions will remain, only the justifications will differ, based on information we believe or know to be true.

Weak Enforcement of the Bankruptcy Laws :: Expository Exemplification Essays

Weak Enforcement of the Bankruptcy Laws In an condition in The Business Journal Mukherjee tells of A health club executive in Texas persuaded a bankruptcy judge that his Rolex watch was off-limits to the creditors beca utilisation the watch was a part of his look and personality. Stripping it would make him feel naked (69). They even let him hold back it. This is the kind of thing that need to be dealt with. It just sends an image that the government and the courts want flock to get a focus with bankruptcy fraud. Bankruptcy is no pertly thing. There are some people who need it just to survive and there are others who take improvement of the way it works. When they do that, they are sounding for a way that they can keep all their m bingley but get rid of their debts. People think of many ways to take advantage of bankruptcy. Sometimes the FBI cant find all of the fraud and then the tax payers suffer. The people commiting the frauds are also making bankruptcy look bad. While in reality, it is one of the best ways for people to get back on their feet. More states need to focus on investigating their bankruptcy frauds and then prosecuting them. John R. Roberts, a bankruptcy attorney, states that bankruptcy is nothing more than a fresh financial start. It is designed to help those who are in debt beyond a reasonable pith to pay (online). This is only if the person in debt didnt get there through anything dishonest. People get in debt for a number of things like losing their job, accidents, and business failure. When that happens people have different options of bankruptcy or different sections of the banckruptcy ammendment to choose from. The most common is Chapter Seven. This section allows you to sell some of your assets to clear as much of the debt as possible. In most cases, it also permits you to keep your property. Chapter 13 is for those who are temporarily in debt. It helps to set up payments that are reasonable for the debtor. (online) Bankruptcy is a way for a person to regain their life. After getting so far in debt some people have no way out. In an article published in Newsweek, The Sorry Side of Sears, McCormick tells about a recent case involving Sears. Sears was using a credit card and issuing it out to anyone that would use it.

Essay --

Assignment 1 EthicsBernie L. Madoff investment Securities LLP was part of what is considered to be one of the largest financial frauds in U.S history. The Wall passageway investment firm was used as an elaborate Ponzi Scheme that extorted upwards of $65 billion from unsuspecting investors. The Ponzi scheme is a fraudulent investment appendage that pays earnings to older investors using the money generated from newer investors. The Ponzi scheme was perpetrated by fo infra Bernie Madoff and was carried out for a number of years until 2008 when he was finally convicted.Bernie L Madoff Investment Securities LLP was founded in 1960 by Chairman Bernie Madoff and was one of the top market-maker businesses primarily serving as the middleman between buyers and sellers of shares. Bernie Madoff first started his firm as a centime stock trader using the $5,000 he saved up from his job as a lifeguard and sprinkler installer. As time went on he was subject to build up his firm with the help o f his father-in-law, Saul Alpern who referred him to a large circle of friends and families which further helped expand his business (Biography.com). The firm eventually became so in(predicate) that by the 1980s, the firm handled up to 5% of the traffic volume on the New York Stock Exchange. The firm also helped develop the National Association for Securities Dealers machine-controlled Quotations (NASDAQ), a computer technology information platform which the firm used to broadcast stock quotes. In the 1990s Bernie Madoff was eventually named chairman of NASDAQ (DeGrace, 2011). Alongside Bernie Madoff was his associate Peter Madoff who was the firms chief compliance officer and senior managing director. Bernie also hired his two sons Mark and Andrew Madoff at his firm.... .... According to the nytimes.com, it is required under the SOX that brokerage firms such as Madoff Securities are required to be audited by firms registered with the Public Company Accounting Board. However, th e S.E.C issued a rule to waive that requirement for in camera held brokerage firms. This again allowed Friehling & Horowitz who werent registered with the board to continue on doing the audits for Madoff Securities. (Norris, 2009)Its obvious that Bernie Madoff was highly respected among his peers for his knowledge and experience in stock trading and he used that leverage to manipulate hundreds of investors. His returns despite seeming suspicious left his investors wanting more. Theres no doubt greed was the driveway force behind Madoffs unethical behaviour but it could also be said greed was also the reason Madoff was able to get away(predicate) with it for so long.

Complex Causality: Climate Change Essay -- multidisciplinary perspecti

Complex events are incidents that challenge pre-existing ideas through not meeting standard expectations or solutions. Equally, due to their confused nature they should be able to be analysed from a multidisciplinary perspective. A multidisciplinary perspective is the drawing together of methodologies from different fond science disciplines (such as economics, international relations, biography and political science) to analyse an event and consequently domain a single conclusion. Overall, the use of a multidisciplinary perspective (in comparison to a singular disciplinary perspective) leave provide the fullest and most accurate analysis of complex events, however this can create a trade off with the complexity and time taken to reach a conclusion. Firstly, this advantage will be argued through implying complex events have complex causality that can only truly be seen through a multidisciplinary perspective. Secondly, it can be seen that all social sciences lie on a spectrum wi th lots of overlap and interdependence between disciplines, and therefore it is an intrinsic feature of the social sciences to view complex events through a multidisciplinary perspective. Finally, it can also be seen that each discipline has respective areas of strength as well as areas of flunk and consequently a multidisciplinary approach allows for the most accurate and broadest analysis of a respective event. This can be shown through examples of complex events such as the up-to-date problem posed by Climate Change and the unforeseen end to the Cold War in 1991. However, it is important to keep in mind that spot there may be many advantages of using a multidisciplinary perspective to analysis, the ultimate purpose of this analysis is to lead to a fina... ...AEBB275/1989%20for%20posting.pdfGaskel, G. (2014) Thinking like a social scientist Why methodology matters LSE100 Lecture Capture retrieved 26th March 2014 http//moodle.lse.ac.ukHarrison, M. (1993) Soviet Economic Growth Since 1928 The Alternative Statistics of G. T. Khanin from Europe-Asia Studies Retrieved 26th March 2014 http//www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/economics/stave/academic/Harrison/public/eas93.pdfHoffman, M. (2013) Global Climate Change in The Handbook of Global Climate and Environmental PolicyMemorandum of the Soviet Ministry of Foreign affairs (1989) Excerpt from The Political Processes in the European Socialist Countries and the Proposals for Our Practical Steps Considering the Situation Which Has Arisin in Them. (Cold War International Project)Sandler, T. (2004) Global Collective Action. Cambridge, UK Cambridge University Press